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大唐貢士之法，多循隋制。上郡歲三人，中郡二人，下郡一人，有才能者無常數。其常貢之科，有秀才，有明經，有進士，有明法，有書，有算。自京師郡縣皆有學焉。每歲仲冬，郡縣館監課試其成者，長吏會屬僚，設賓主，陳俎豆，備管絃，牲用少牢，行鄉飲酒禮，歌鹿鳴之詩，徵耆艾、敘少長而觀焉。既餞，而與計偕。其不在館學而舉者，謂之鄉貢。舊令諸郡雖一、二、三人之限，而實無常數。到尚書省，始由戶部集閱，而關于考功課試，可者為第。律曰：「諸貢舉非其人，及應貢舉而不貢舉者，一人徒一年，二人加一等，罪止徒三年。」 |
| | The method of selecting tribute candidates in the Tang dynasty mostly followed the Sui system. Each upper-level commandery sent three persons per year, middle-level commanderies two persons, and lower-level commanderies one person; those with talent and ability had no fixed quota. The regular categories for tribute candidates included Xiucai, Mingjing, Jinshi, Mingfa, Shu, and Suan. From the capital to commanderies and counties, there were schools everywhere. Every year in the middle of winter, commanderies and counties would test those who had achieved success at their schools. Senior officials would gather with their subordinates, set up hosts and guests, arrange ritual vessels, prepare flutes and zithers, offer sacrifices using a lesser number of livestock, perform the rural drinking ceremony, sing the poem "Lu Ming," invite elders, and observe the proceedings while discussing matters of youth and age. After the farewell banquet, they would travel together to report their results. Those who were recommended but did not attend a school or academy were called xianggong (tribute candidates from the locality). According to old regulations, although each commandery had limits of one, two, or three persons, in reality there was no fixed number. Upon arriving at the Shangshu Province, they were first gathered and reviewed by the Ministry of Revenue, then referred to the Kao Gong Office for examinations; those who passed would be ranked. The law states: "Those who recommend candidates for tribute who are not suitable, And those who should be recommended for tribute but are not, One person shall receive one year of penal servitude; two persons will be punished one level higher, with the maximum penalty being three years of penal servitude."
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初，秀才科等最高，試方略策五條，有上上、上中、上下、中上，凡四等。貞觀中，有舉而不第者，坐其州長，由是廢絕。自是士族所趣嚮，唯明經、進士二科而已。其初止試策，貞觀八年，詔加進士試讀經史一部。 |
| | Initially, the Xiucai category was the highest rank; candidates were tested on five questions of strategy and policy, with grades divided into Shangshang, Shangzhong, Shangxia, and Zhongshang—four levels in total. During the Zhenguan period, there were those who failed to pass despite being recommended; as a result, the officials in charge of their state were held accountable, and thus this category was abolished. From then on, the only two categories that scholars aspired toward were Mingjing and Jinshi. Initially, it was tested solely by policy essays; in the eighth year of Zhenguan, an imperial edict ordered that Jinshi candidates also be examined on reading one set of Confucian classics and historical texts.
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至調露二年，考功員外郎劉思立始奏二科並加帖經。其後，又加老子、孝經，使兼通之。永隆二年，詔明經帖十得六，進士試文兩篇，識文律者，然後試策。 |
| | By the second year of Diaolu, Yuanwailang Liu Sili of Kao Gong first submitted a proposal to add memorization tests for both categories. Afterward, the examination was further expanded to include Laozi and Xue Jing, requiring candidates to demonstrate proficiency in all of them. In the second year of Yonglong, an imperial edict stipulated that Mingjing candidates must correctly memorize six out of ten passages; Jinshi candidates had to write two literary compositions and demonstrate knowledge of literary rules before taking the policy essay examination.
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武太后載初元年二月，策問貢人於洛城殿，數日方了。殿前試人自此始。長壽三年制，始令舉人獻歲元會，列於方物前，以備充庭。長壽二年，太后自製臣軌兩篇，令貢舉習業，停老子。 |
| | In the second month of Zaichu Yuan Nian under Empress Wu Zetian, tribute candidates were questioned on policy matters at Luocheng Hall; it took several days to complete. The practice of testing candidates before the hall began from this time onward. In the third year of Changshou, an imperial decree stipulated that tribute candidates should present their offerings at the beginning of each new year's grand assembly, placing them before local products to be used for filling the court. In the second year of Changshou, Empress Dowager Wu personally composed two chapters titled Chengu, ordered tribute candidates to study them, and discontinued Laozi.
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長安二年，教人習武藝，其後每歲如明經、進士之法，行鄉飲酒禮，送於兵部。其課試之制，畫帛為五規，置之於垛，去之百有五步，列坐引射，名曰「長垛」。又穿土為埒，其長與垛均，綴皮為兩鹿，歷置其上，馳馬射之，名曰「馬射」。又斷木為人，戴方版於頂。凡四偶人，互列埒上，馳馬入埒，運槍左右觸，必版落而人不踣，名曰「馬槍」。皆以儇好不失者為上。兼有步射、穿札、翹關、負重、身材、言語之選，通得五上者為第。其餘復有平射之科，不拘色役，高第者授以官，其次以類升。又制為土木馬於里閭閒，教人習騎。 |
| | In the second year of Chang'an, people were taught to practice martial arts; afterward, every year they followed the method used for Mingjing and Jinshi candidates by performing the rural drinking ceremony and sending them to the Ministry of War. The examination regulations for martial arts required five targets made of silk, placed on a target stand at a distance of 105 paces; Candidates sat in rows and took turns shooting, a practice known as "Changduo." They also dug earthen mounds of the same length as the target stand, attached leather to form two deer figures and placed them on top; candidates rode horses while shooting at them, a practice called "horseback archery." They also carved wooden figures and placed square boards on their heads. Four such wooden figures were arranged in pairs on the mounds; candidates rode into the mound area, maneuvered a spear to strike left and right. The board must fall while the figure remained upright—this was called "horseback lance." Those who performed skillfully without missing were considered the best. There were also selections for foot archery, armor penetration, weightlifting, carrying heavy loads, physical appearance, and eloquence; candidates who achieved five "shang" (upper) ratings in total would be ranked. Other categories also included flat shooting, without restrictions on social status or labor duties; those who achieved high rankings were granted official positions, while others received promotions according to their category. They also built wooden and earthen horses in the neighborhoods for people to practice horseback riding.
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神龍二年二月，制貢舉人停臣軌，依舊習老子。 |
| | In the second month of Shenlong 2nd year, an imperial decree ordered tribute candidates to stop studying Chengu and return to their previous practice of studying Laozi.
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開元八年七月，國子司業李元璀上言：「三禮、三傳及毛詩、尚書、周易等，並聖賢微旨。生人教業，必事資經遠，則斯道不墜。今明經所習，務在出身，咸以禮記文少，人皆競讀。周禮經邦之軌則，儀禮莊敬之楷模，公羊、穀梁，歷代崇習，今兩監及州縣，以獨學無友，四經殆絕。事資訓誘，不可因循。其學生請各量配作業，并貢人參試之，日習周禮、儀禮、公羊、穀梁。並請帖十通五，許其入策。以此開勸，即望四海均習，九經該備。」從之。二十一年，玄宗新注老子成，詔天下每歲貢士，減尚書、論語策，而加老子焉。二十四年，制移貢舉於禮部，以侍郎掌之。二十五年二月，制：「明經每經帖十，取通五以上，免舊試一帖；仍按問大義十條，取通六以上，免試經策十條；令答時務策三道，取粗有文理者與及第。其進士停小經，準明經帖大經十帖，取通四以上，然後準例試雜文及策，考通與及第。其明經中有明五經以上，試無不通者；進士中兼有精通一史，能試策十條得六以上者：奏聽進止。其應試進士等，唱第訖，具所試雜文及策，送中書、門下詳覆。」玄宗方弘道化，至二十九年，始於京師置崇玄館，諸州置道學，生徒有差，謂之「道舉」。舉送、課試與明經同。凡舉司課試之法，帖經者，以所習經掩其兩端，中閒開唯一行，裁紙為帖，凡帖三字，隨時增損，可否不一，或得四、得五、得六者為通。 |
| | In July of the eighth year of Kaiyuan, Guizi Siye Li Yuancui submitted a statement: "The Three Rites, the Three Transmissions, Mao Shi, Shangshu, and Zhouyi all contain the profound teachings of sages. Teaching these texts to students is essential for preserving long-standing learning; only in this way will this tradition not be lost. Currently, Mingjing candidates focus on passing the examination for official status; all prefer to study Liji because it contains fewer texts, and many people compete to read it. Zhouli contains the principles for governing a nation, Yili serves as a model of solemn respect, and Gongyang and Guliang have been highly regarded through generations. Now, however, in both academies and local commanderies, due to isolated study without companionship, these four classics are nearly extinct. It is essential to provide guidance and encouragement; we cannot simply follow old habits passively. Therefore, it is requested that students be assigned appropriate amounts of study and that tribute candidates participate in examinations, studying Zhouli, Yili, Gongyang, and Guliang daily. It is also requested that candidates who correctly memorize five out of ten passages be allowed to take the policy essay examination. By doing so, we hope to encourage widespread study across the empire and ensure that all nine classics are thoroughly studied." The emperor approved this proposal. In the 21st year, after Emperor Xuanzong completed his new commentary on Laozi, an imperial edict was issued ordering tribute candidates throughout the empire to reduce their policy essays and discussions on Shangshu and Lunyu, and instead add examinations on Laozi. In the 24th year of Kaiyuan, a decree was issued to transfer the administration of tribute and examination affairs to the Ministry of Rites, which would be overseen by its Shilang. In February of the 25th year, an imperial decree was issued: "For Mingjing candidates, ten passages from each classic will be tested; those who correctly memorize at least five may be exempted from one previous memorization test; they must still answer ten major questions, and those who correctly understand at least six may be exempted from the policy essay on ten classical texts; candidates must also answer three current affairs policy questions, and those whose answers show basic coherence in reasoning will be allowed to pass." For Jinshi candidates, the small classics were discontinued; they were required to memorize ten passages from major classics and must correctly understand at least four before following established procedures to take examinations on miscellaneous writings and policy essays, with passing scores determining whether they would be ranked. Among Mingjing candidates, those who demonstrated mastery of five or more classics and passed all tests without failure; and Jinshi candidates who also had a thorough knowledge of one historical text, and could correctly answer at least six out of ten policy questions: these cases were to be reported for imperial decision. For those Jinshi candidates taking the examination, after announcing their rankings, they must submit all their written compositions and policy essays to the Zhongshu and Menxia departments for detailed review." Emperor Xuanzong was promoting the Daoist way; by the 29th year, he established Chongxuan Hall in the capital and Daoist schools in various states. The number of students varied: This was called "Daoju." The process of recommendation and examination for Daoju candidates was the same as that for Mingjing. Generally, the method of examinations for tribute candidates involved "Tiejing" (memorizing classical texts), in which the candidate's studied classic was covered at both ends, leaving only one line open. A piece of paper would be used to cover three characters; depending on the situation, some characters were added or removed, and whether they could be recalled varied. Candidates who correctly identified four, five, or six sets of characters were considered to have passed.
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天寶元年，明經停老子，加習爾雅。十一載，禮部侍郎楊浚始開為三行，明經所試一大經及孝經、論語、爾雅，帖各有差；帖既通而口問之，一經問十義，得六者為通；問通而後試策，凡三條。三試皆通者為第。進士所試一大經及爾雅，帖既通而後試文試賦各一篇，文通而後試策，凡五條。三試皆通者為第。明法試律令各十帖，試策共十條，全通為甲，通八以上為乙，自七以下為不第。書者試說文、字林凡十帖，口試無常限，皆通者為第。算者試九章、海島、孫子、五曹、張丘建、夏侯陽、周髀、五經、綴術、緝古，帖各有差，兼試問大義，皆通者為第。凡眾科有能兼學，則加超獎，不在常限。 |
| | 𝑙 In the first year of Tianbao, Mingjing candidates stopped studying Laozi and added Erya to their curriculum. In the eleventh year, Shilang Yang Jun of the Ministry of Rites first divided it into three rows; Mingjing candidates were tested on one major classic, as well as Xue Jing, Lunyu, and Erya; the number of passages to be memorized varied for each. After passing the memorization test, they were orally questioned: one classic was examined with ten major meanings; those who answered six correctly were considered to have passed; Only after passing the oral examination would candidates proceed to take the policy essay test, which consisted of three questions. Those who passed all three examinations were ranked as successful candidates. Jinshi candidates were tested on one major classical text and Erya; After passing the memorization tests, candidates were examined on one prose composition and one rhapsody; after passing these written examinations, they took a policy essay test consisting of five questions. Those who passed all three exams would be ranked as successful candidates. Mingfa candidates were tested on ten passages each from the legal codes and administrative regulations, as well as a total of ten policy questions; Those who fully passed were ranked first class (Jia); those who passed eight or more questions were second class (Yi); and those with seven or fewer correct answers were considered unsuccessful. Candidates for the Shu category were tested on ten passages from Shuowen Jiezi and Zilin; Oral examinations had no fixed limits, but those who passed all tests were ranked as successful candidates. Candidates for the Suan category were tested on Jiuzhang Suanshu, Hai Dao, Sunzi, Wucao, Zhang Qiu Jian, Xiahou Yang, Zhou Bi, Wujing, Zhuishu, and Jigu; the number of passages varied accordingly; If candidates in any subject could study multiple disciplines, they would receive special recognition and rewards beyond the usual limits.
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按令文，科第秀才與明經同為四等，進士與明法同為二等。然秀才之科久廢，而明經雖有甲乙丙丁四科，進士有甲乙二科，自武德以來，明經唯有丁第，進士唯乙科而已。先試之期，命舉人謁於先師，有司卜日，宿張於國學，宰輔以下皆會而觀焉。博集群議講論，而退之禮部。閱試之日，皆嚴設兵衛，荐棘圍之，搜索衣服，譏訶出入，以防假濫焉。其進士，大抵千人得第者百一二；明經倍之，得第者十一二。其制詔舉人，不有常科，皆標其目而搜揚之。試之日，或在殿廷，天子親臨觀之。試已，糊其名於中考之，文策高者特授以美官，其次與出身。開元以後，四海晏清，士無賢不肖，恥不以文章達，其應詔而舉者，多則二千人，少猶不減千人，所收百纔有一。 |
| | According to the legal text, candidates ranked in the Kuodi examination were divided into four classes for Xiucai and Mingjing; Jinshi and Mingfa were each divided into two classes. However, the Xiucai examination had long been abolished. Although Mingjing candidates were theoretically divided into four classes (Jia, Yi, Bing, Ding) and Jinshi into two (Jia and Yi), since Wude period, only the lowest class of Mingjing (Ding) was awarded, while Jinshi candidates received only the second class (Yi). Before the examinations, candidates were ordered to pay homage to their ancestors. Officials in charge selected a date for divination; the night before, they stayed at the national academy, where ministers and officials of lower ranks gathered to observe. After extensive group discussions on interpretations and debates, candidates were then sent to the Ministry of Rites. On the day of examination, strict military guards were deployed; thorny barriers surrounded the site. Candidates' clothing was searched and their movements monitored to prevent fraud and misconduct. For Jinshi candidates, roughly one or two out of a thousand passed. Mingjing had twice the number of Jinshi candidates; about ten to twelve percent were successful. The imperial edict for selecting candidates was not based on regular examinations, but rather by announcing specific categories and seeking out talent accordingly. On the day of testing, some examinations were held in the palace hall, where the emperor personally attended to observe. After the exams, names were sealed and hidden during evaluation; those with outstanding essays or policy responses were specially appointed to prestigious posts, while others received official status. After the Kaiyuan period, when peace prevailed across the empire, scholars—whether virtuous or not—shamed themselves for failing to achieve success through literary talent. Those responding to imperial edicts and taking the examinations numbered as many as 2,000 at most, but never fewer than 1,000; yet only one in a hundred was accepted.
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寶應二年六月，禮部侍郎楊綰奏，諸州每歲貢人，依鄉舉里選，察秀才、孝廉。敕旨：「州縣每歲察孝廉，取在鄉閭有孝悌、廉恥之行薦焉。委有司以禮待之，試其所通之學。五經之內，精通一經，兼能對策，達於理體者，並量行業授官。其明經、進士、道舉，並停。」旋復故矣。 |
| | In the sixth month of Baoying two, Yilang Yang Wan of the Ministry of Rites submitted a memorial stating that each year, the various states should recommend candidates according to local recommendations and selections, examining Xiucai (outstanding talents) and Xiaolian (filial and upright individuals). The imperial decree stated: "Each year, prefectures and counties should examine Xiaolian candidates; those who demonstrate filial piety, fraternal respect, integrity, and a sense of shame in their hometowns are to be recommended. The relevant officials were entrusted with treating them respectfully and testing the knowledge they had mastered. Those who thoroughly understood one of the Five Classics, could also respond to policy questions, and demonstrated understanding of principles were all granted official positions according to their conduct and learning. The Mingjing, Jinshi, Daogu, and other examinations were all suspended." But they soon resumed as before.
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貞元二年六月，敕：「自今以後，其諸色舉選人中，有能習開元禮者，舉人同一經例，選人不限選數，許集。問大義一百條，試策三道，全通者超資與官，義通七十條，策通兩道以上者放及第，以下不在放限。其有散、試官能通者，亦依正員例處分。」五年五月，敕：「自今以後，諸色人中有習三禮者，前資及出身人依科目選例，吏部考試；白身依貢舉例，禮部考試。每經問大義三十條，試策三道。所試大義，仍委主司於朝官、學官中，揀擇精通經術三五人聞奏，主司與同試問。義策全通為上等，特加超獎；大義每經通二十五條以上，策通兩道以上為次等，依資與官。如先是員外、試官者，聽依正員例。其諸學生願習三禮及開元禮者，並聽。仍永為常式。」九年五月，敕：「其習開元禮人，問大義一百條，試策三道，全通者為上等；大義通八十條以上，策兩道以上為次等；餘一切並準三禮例處分。仍永為常式。」 |
| | In the sixth month of Zhenyuan two, an imperial decree stated: "From now on, among all types of candidates for official selection, those who have studied the Kaiyuan Li (Rites) may be treated as if they had mastered one classical text; selected officials are not limited by the number of selections and may gather. One hundred major principles will be examined, along with three policy questions. Those who fully pass will be promoted and granted official positions beyond the usual qualifications; those who understand seventy of the principles and answer at least two policy questions correctly may be ranked as successful candidates; others below this standard are not eligible for selection. Those who are currently serving or acting officials and can pass the examination will also be treated according to the regulations for regular officials." In May of the fifth year, an imperial decree stated: "From now on, among people of all backgrounds who have studied the Three Rites, those with previous official experience or official status will be selected according to subject categories by the Ministry of Personnel for examination; those without prior official status shall follow the example of tribute candidates and be examined by the Ministry of Rites." For each classic, thirty major principles will be asked, along with three policy questions to be tested. The major principles to be examined will still be entrusted to the chief examiner, who shall select three or five individuals from among court officials and academic officials who are well-versed in classical learning. These selected individuals must report their findings for imperial approval, and they will jointly examine and question candidates with the chief examiner. Those who fully pass both the major principles and policy questions are ranked as top class and receive special recognition; those who understand at least twenty-five of the major principles for each classic and answer two policy questions correctly are ranked as second class, and will be granted official positions according to their qualifications. If they were previously acting or provisional officials, they may follow the regulations for regular appointments. Students from various academies who wish to study the Three Rites and Kaiyuan Li are all permitted to do so. This regulation shall remain in effect permanently as a standard practice." In May of the ninth year, an imperial decree stated: "For those who study Kaiyuan Li, one hundred major principles will be questioned and three policy questions tested; those who fully pass are ranked as top class; those who understand eighty or more of the major principles and answer two or more policy questions correctly will be ranked as second class; all other matters shall follow the same regulations applied to those studying the Three Rites." This regulation shall remain permanently in effect as a standard practice."
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其選授之法，亦同循前代。凡諸王及職事正三品以上，若文武散官二品以上及都督、都護、上州刺史之在京師者，冊授。五品以上皆制授。六品以下、守五品以上及視五品以上，皆敕授。凡制、敕授及冊拜，皆宰司進擬。自六品以下旨授。其視品及流外官，皆判補之。凡旨授官，悉由於尚書，文官屬吏部，武官屬兵部，謂之銓選。唯員外郎、御史及供奉之官，則否。 |
| | The method of selection and appointment also followed the practices of previous dynasties. All imperial princes and officials holding actual posts of the third rank or higher, as well as civil and military officers of the second rank or higher who were in the capital city, along with Doudou (military governors), Duhu (border protectors), and Shangzhou Cishi (governors of major states), received their appointments through imperial edicts. Officials of the fifth rank and above received their appointments by imperial decree. Those below the sixth rank, those holding acting posts at or above the fifth rank, as well as those with equivalent status to the fifth rank and higher, all received their appointments by imperial edict. All appointments made through imperial decree or edict, as well as enfeoffments and investitures, were first proposed by the chief officials of the relevant departments. From the sixth rank downward, appointments were directly issued by imperial decree. Those with equivalent ranks and officials outside the regular bureaucratic system (liuwai guan) were all appointed through administrative decisions. All appointments by imperial decree were handled through the Shangshu (Ministry of Works), with civil officials under the Ministry of Personnel and military officials under the Ministry of War; this process was known as quanxuan. Only Yuanwailang (extra assistant ministers), Yushi (censors), and officials serving in the imperial court were exceptions to this rule.
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凡吏部、兵部文武選事，各分為三銓，尚書典其一，侍郎分其二。文選，舊制尚書掌六品、七品選，侍郎掌八品、九品選。景雲初，宋璟為吏部尚書，始通其品員而分典之，遂以為常。凡選，始於孟冬，終於季春。 |
| | All civil and military appointments handled by the Ministry of Personnel and the Ministry of War were divided into three quan (selection divisions), with one overseen directly by the Shangshu, while the other two were managed separately by the Yilangs. For civil appointments, according to old regulations, the Shangshu was responsible for selecting officials of sixth and seventh ranks, while Yilangs were in charge of eighth and ninth rank selections. At the beginning of Jingyun, Song Jing served as Minister of Personnel; he first unified and divided the ranks for appointments, a practice that was then established as standard. The selection process began in the first month of winter and ended by the last month of spring.
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其擇人有四事：一曰身，二曰言，三曰書，四曰判。四事可取，則先乎德行；德均以才，才均以勞。其六品以降，計資量勞而擬其官；五品以上，不試，列名上中書、門下，聽制敕處分。凡選，始集而試，觀其書判；已試而銓，察其身、言；已銓而注，詢其便利，而擬其官。已注而唱示之，不厭者得反通其辭，他日，更其官而告之如初。又不厭者，亦如之。三唱而不服，聽冬集。服者以類相從，攢之為甲，先簡僕射，乃上門下省，給事中讀之，黃門侍郎省之，侍中審之。不審者，皆得駮下。既審，然後上聞，主者受旨而奉行焉。各給以符，而印其上，謂之「告身」。其文曰「尚書吏部告身之印」。自出身之人，至於公卿，皆給之。武官，則受於兵部。兵部武選亦然，課試之法如舉人之制，取其軀幹雄偉，應對詳明，有驍勇材藝及可為統帥者。若文吏求為武選，取身長六尺以上，籍年四十以下，強勇可以統人者。武夫求為文選，取書判精工，有理人之才而無殿犯者。凡官已受成，皆殿庭謝恩。其黔中、嶺南、閩中郡縣之官，不由吏部，以京官五品以上一人充使就補，御史一人監之，四歲一往，謂之「南選」。凡居官以年為考，六品以下四考為滿。 |
| | There were four criteria for selecting officials: first, "Shen," Second, "Yan," Third, "Shu," Fourth, "Pan." If a candidate met these four criteria, moral character was considered first; if their virtue was equal, then talent was considered; if their talent was equal, then past service and contributions were taken into account. For those of sixth rank and below, official appointments were determined by calculating their qualifications and assessing their past service. Those above the fifth rank did not take examinations; they merely had their names listed and submitted to the Secretariat and Office of Door-Down, awaiting imperial decree for appointment. At the beginning of each selection process, candidates were gathered and tested; their calligraphy and judgment writing were observed; after testing, they underwent quanxuan (selection review), during which their physical appearance and speech were examined; After the selection process was completed, officials would consult on what positions best suited each candidate before proposing appointments. After the assignments were announced, if a candidate was dissatisfied, they could appeal and request reconsideration. On another day, their appointment would be changed accordingly, and the new decision would be communicated to them as before. If a candidate remained dissatisfied after this process, it was handled in the same manner. Those who were still unsatisfied after three announcements could wait until the winter selection session to reapply. Those who accepted their appointments were grouped according to categories, compiled into a list called "Jia," first reviewed by the Minister of Works, then submitted to the Office of Door-Down. The Attending Councillor would read it aloud, the Yellow Gate Attendant Secretary would examine it, and finally the Director of the Office of Door-Down would review and approve it. Those who failed to pass the final review could all be rejected or returned for reconsideration. After approval, it was then reported to the emperor; the responsible officials would receive the imperial decree and carry out the orders accordingly. Each appointee was given a token, which was stamped with an official seal; this document was called "goshen." The inscription on the seal read: "Shangshu Libu Goshen Zhi Yin" (Seal of the Ministry of Personnel, Secretariat). From newly appointed officials to high-ranking ministers and grandees, all were given such documents. For military officers, these appointments were issued by the Ministry of War. The Ministry of War's selection process for military officers was similar; the method of assessment followed a system akin to that used for selecting juren (imperial candidates), focusing on those with strong and imposing physiques, clear and articulate responses, as well as bravery, talent, and martial skills suitable for leadership roles. If a civilian official wished to be selected as a military officer, they had to meet the criteria of being at least six chi tall (approximately 180 cm), under forty years old according to their household registration, and physically strong and courageous enough to lead others. If a soldier wished to be selected for a civilian post, they had to demonstrate excellent calligraphy and judgment writing, possess the talent to govern people, and have no record of misconduct or crimes. All officials who received their appointments would express gratitude in the palace courtyard. The officials of the commanderies and counties in Qianzhong, Lingnan, and Minzhong were not appointed by the Ministry of Personnel. Instead, one person holding a fifth rank or higher official post from the capital was assigned as an envoy to conduct appointments on-site, with one Censorate official supervising them. This appointment mission took place once every four years and was known as "Nanxuan." The term of office for officials was measured in years; for those ranked sixth or below, completing four terms constituted a full service period.
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| | 歷代制下: |
自高宗麟德以後，承平既久，人康俗阜，求進者眾，選人漸多。總章二年，裴行儉為司列少常伯，始設「長名姓歷牓」，引銓注之法；又定州縣官資高下升降，以為故事。其後莫能革焉。至玄宗開元中，行儉子光庭為侍中，以選人既無常限，或有出身二十餘年而不獲祿者，復作「循資格」，定為限域。凡官罷滿以若干選而集，各有差等，卑官多選，高官少選，賢愚一貫，必合乎格者，乃得銓授。自下升上，限年躡級，不得踰越。久淹不收者，皆荷之，謂之「聖書」。雖小有常規，而掄材之方失矣。其有異才高行，聽擢不次，然有其制，而無其事。有司但守文奉式，循資例而已。 |
| | Since the reign of Emperor Gaozong in the Lindu era, after a long period of peace and stability, people enjoyed prosperity and social harmony. As a result, many sought advancement, leading to an increasing number of candidates for official appointments. In the second year of Zongzhang, Pei Xingjian, as Deputy Minister of Personnel, first introduced the "Changmingxing Lili Bbang" (a list recording candidates' names and qualifications) to implement a more systematic method for selection and appointment. He also established the criteria for determining the ranks, promotions, and demotions of officials in commanderies and counties, setting these as precedents to be followed. After that, no one was able to change this system. It was not until the middle of Emperor Xuanzong's Kaiyuan era that Pei Guangting, son of Pei Xingjian and serving as Director of the Office of Door-Downlist, noted that since there were no fixed limits on official appointments, some candidates had waited over twenty years after passing their examinations without receiving a salary. He therefore reintroduced the "Xunzige" (system of seniority qualifications) to establish clear boundaries for appointment criteria. According to this system, officials who had completed their terms of service were required to wait for a certain number of selection cycles before they could reapply. The waiting periods varied according to rank: lower-ranking officials had longer waiting times, while higher-ranking ones had shorter ones. Regardless of whether an official was wise or foolish, appointment was only granted if the candidate met the established criteria and qualifications. Promotion from a lower to a higher rank required waiting for the specified number of years, advancing step by step according to the system; no one was allowed to bypass or leap over these ranks. Those who had waited for a long time without being appointed were all recorded in official documents, and this list was called "Shengshu." Although there were minor standard procedures, the method of selecting talented individuals had been lost. Those with exceptional talent or high moral character could theoretically be promoted out of turn, but although such a regulation existed, it was never actually implemented. The responsible officials merely adhered to written procedures and followed the established examples based on seniority.
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| | 歷代制下: |
初，吏部選才，將親其人，覆其吏事，始取州縣案牘疑議，試其斷割，而觀其能否，此所以為判也。後日月寖久，選人猥多，案牘淺近，不足為難，乃采經籍古義，假設甲乙，令其判斷。既而來者益眾，而通經正籍又不足以為問，乃徵僻書、曲學、隱伏之義問之，惟懼人之能知也。佳者登於科第，謂之「入等」；其甚拙者謂之「藍縷」，各有升降。選人有格限未至，而能試文三篇，謂之「宏詞」；試判三條，謂之「拔萃」，亦曰「超絕」。詞美者，得不拘限而授職。 |
| | Initially, when the Ministry of Personnel selected officials, it required a personal examination of candidates and an assessment of their administrative abilities. Officials were first tested on how they would resolve doubtful or disputed cases from local records; this was done to observe whether they had the capability to handle such matters, and this process became known as "pan" (judgment writing). As time passed and the number of candidates increased, the cases drawn from local records became too simple to pose a real challenge. Therefore, officials began to draw upon classical texts and historical precedents, creating hypothetical scenarios involving individuals named Jia and Yi for candidates to judge and resolve. Later, as the number of applicants continued to grow and even knowledge of classical texts was no longer sufficient for testing purposes, officials began posing obscure references, esoteric scholarship, and hidden meanings in their questions—solely out of concern that candidates might be able to answer them. Those who performed well were ranked in the examination results; this was called "ru deng" (being placed on the register). Those who performed very poorly were labeled as "lanlv," and candidates received different rankings accordingly. Candidates whose qualifications had not yet met the required criteria but who were able to compose three literary essays could be considered for a special category known as "Hongci." Those who passed three judgment writing tests were called "Bacui," also referred to as "Chaojue." Candidates whose essays were of exceptional quality could be appointed without being restricted by the usual criteria.
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| | 歷代制下: |
初州縣混同，無等級之差，凡所拜授，或自大而遷小，或始近而後遠，無有定制。其後選人既多，敘用不給，遂累增郡縣等級之差，其折衝府亦有差等。按格、令，內外官萬八千八十五員。而合入官者，自諸館學生以降，凡十二萬餘員。其外文武貢士及應制、挽郎、輦腳、軍功、使勞、徵辟、奏薦、神童、陪位，諸以親蔭并藝術百司雜直，或恩賜出身受職不為常員者，不可悉數。大率約八、九人爭官一員。 |
| | Initially, there were no distinctions in rank between commanderies and counties; all appointments could either start from a high position and move to a lower one or begin with an office close to the capital before moving further away—there was no fixed system. Later, as the number of candidates increased and appointments could not keep up with demand, the ranks of commanderies and counties were gradually expanded. The Zhedong military offices also had distinctions in rank. According to the regulations and decrees, there were a total of 18,815 posts for both central and local officials. However, the number of people eligible to enter officialdom, including students from various academies and those ranked below them, totaled over 120,000. In addition, there were countless other candidates from civilian and military examinations, those who responded to imperial decrees for appointments, wanshang (ceremonial attendants), nianjiao (imperial procession assistants), those granted official status through military merit or service on diplomatic missions, those recommended by officials, child prodigies, those permitted to participate in court ceremonies due to family connections, and various others who received positions through hereditary privilege, special skills, or appointments from different government departments. These individuals, as well as those granted posts out of imperial favor without being part of the regular quota, could not all be counted exhaustively. In general, about eight or nine people competed for a single official post.
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| | 歷代制下: |
初，武德中，天下兵革方息，萬姓安業，士不求祿，官不充員，吏曹乃移牒州府，課人應集，至則授官，無所退遣。四五年閒，求者漸多，方稍有沙汰。 |
| | Initially, during the middle of Wude era, when warfare had just ceased and the people were enjoying peace and prosperity, scholars did not actively seek official positions, and there was no shortage of officials. The Ministry of Personnel would simply issue documents to commanderies and prefectures requesting candidates to assemble for selection; those who arrived were appointed without being rejected or sent back. After four or five years, the number of applicants gradually increased, and some candidates began to be rejected.
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| | 歷代制下: |
貞觀時，京師穀貴，始分人於洛州選集，參選者七千人，而得官者六千人。時太宗謂吏部尚書杜如晦曰：「今吏部取人，獨舉其言辭刀筆，而不詳才行，或授職數年，然後罪彰，雖刑戮繼及，而人已弊矣。如之何？」對曰：「昔兩漢取人，必本於鄉閭選之，然後入官，是以稱漢為多士。今每歲選集，動踰數千人，厚貌飾辭，何可知也。選曹但校其階品而已。若掄才辨行，未見其術。」上由是將依漢法，令本州辟召，會功臣議行封建，事乃寢。他日，上又曰：「夫古今致理，在於得賢。今公等不能知，朕不遍識，日月其逝，而人遠矣。吾將使人自舉，如之何？」魏徵曰：「知人則智，自知者明。知人誠難矣，而自知豈易乎？且自媒自衒，士女之醜行，是長澆競也。不可。」復寢。是時，吏部之法行始二十餘年，雖已為弊矣，而未甚滂流，故公卿輔弼或有未之覺者。太宗初知其微而未及更，因循至於永徽中，官紀已紊，迨麟德之後，不勝其弊。 |
| | During the Zhenyuan era, when grain prices in the capital were high, officials began holding selection sessions in Luozhou (Luoyang) to ease the burden. Approximately 7,000 people participated in these selections, and about 6,000 of them received official appointments. At that time, Emperor Taizong said to Du Ruhui, Minister of Personnel: "Nowadays the Ministry of Personnel selects officials by focusing only on their eloquence and writing skills without thoroughly examining their character and abilities. Some are appointed for several years before their misconduct is exposed; even if they are later punished or executed, many people have already been harmed." What can be done about this?" Du Ruhui replied: "In the past, during the Two Han dynasties, officials were first recommended by their local communities before being appointed to government posts. This is why it was said that the Han dynasty had many virtuous and talented individuals." Now, each year's selection process involves thousands of candidates. Many of them have handsome appearances and eloquent words, but how can we truly know their character? The Ministry of Personnel merely examines their ranks and qualifications. If we are to select talent and discern character, I do not see a clear method for doing so." The emperor therefore considered following the Han dynasty system and ordered local commanderies to recommend candidates themselves. However, this plan was put on hold due to discussions among meritorious ministers about implementing a feudal system. On another occasion, the emperor said: "The key to good governance in both ancient and modern times lies in selecting virtuous individuals." Now you, my ministers, are unable to identify them, and I cannot personally know all of them. As time passes, these talents will be lost to us." I intend to allow people to recommend themselves. What do you think?" Wei Zheng replied: "Knowing others is wisdom; knowing oneself is enlightenment. It is indeed difficult to know people well, but isn't it even more difficult for a person to truly understand themselves?" Moreover, self-promotion and self-advertisement are disgraceful behaviors among scholars and women; this would encourage flattery and competition. "It is not advisable." The matter was once again put on hold. At that time, the system of the Ministry of Personnel had been in place for only over twenty years. Although it was already showing signs of corruption, its negative effects were not yet widespread; therefore, some high-ranking officials and advisors might not have fully realized the problem. Emperor Taizong initially recognized the subtle flaws in the system but did not have time to reform it. The situation continued unchanged until the middle of Yonghui era, when official discipline had already become disordered; by the Lindu period, the problems were so severe that they could no longer be managed.
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| | 歷代制下: |
及武太后臨朝，務悅人心，不問賢愚，選集者多收之，職員不足，乃令吏部大置試官以處之，故當時有「車載」、「斗量」之謠。又以鄧玄挺、許子儒為侍郎，無所藻鑑，委成令史，依資平配。其後，諸門入仕者猥眾，不可禁止，有偽立符告者，有接承他名者，有遠人無親而買保者，有試判之日求人代作者，如此假濫，不可悉數。武太后又以吏部選人多不實，乃令試日自糊其名，暗考以定等第。糊名自此始也。有司不能詳求故實，滅革其弊，而乃繁設等級，遞立選防，苟以抑之。 |
| | When Empress Wu Zetian assumed power, she sought to please the people and appointed candidates without regard for their virtue or ability. As a result, most applicants were accepted even though there were not enough official positions available; thus, the Ministry of Personnel was ordered to create numerous trial posts to accommodate them. Hence, at that time, there were rhymes mocking this situation as "appointments measured by carts and buckets." She also appointed Deng Xuanting. Xu Ziru, as Vice Minister of Personnel (Shilang), showed no discernment in selecting officials and left all decisions to the clerks. Appointments were made purely based on seniority and qualifications without further consideration. After that, the number of people entering officialdom through various channels became excessive and could not be controlled. Some forged appointment documents; others assumed the names of others to gain positions; some distant individuals without relatives bribed officials for sponsorship; on days when judgment writing was tested, some even hired others to write their essays. Such fraudulent and corrupt practices were too numerous to count. Empress Wu Zetian, upon learning that many candidates selected by the Ministry of Personnel were unqualified, ordered that on examination days their names be covered with paper to conceal their identities. This was done so that officials could evaluate them anonymously and determine rankings fairly. The practice of covering candidates' names during examinations began from this time onward. The responsible officials were unable to thoroughly investigate and eliminate these abuses. Yet the authorities continued to create numerous ranks and levels, establishing increasingly complex selection criteria merely as a means of suppression.
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| | 歷代制下: |
及神龍以來，復置員外官二千餘人，兼超授閹官為員外官者又千餘人。時中宮用事，恩澤橫出，除官有不由宰司，特敕斜封便拜。於是內外盈溢，居無廨署，時人謂之「三無坐處」，言宰相、御史及員外官也。時以鄭愔為吏部侍郎，大納貨賄，留人過多，無闕注擬，逆用三年闕員，於是綱紀大紊。 |
| | Since the Shenlong era, more than 2,000 additional officials were appointed as Yuanwai Guan (extra quota officials), and over a thousand eunuchs were also promoted beyond their ranks to serve in these positions. At that time, the empress dowager held power, and favors were lavishly distributed. Official appointments were often made without going through the chancellery; instead, special imperial decrees would issue oblique seals (xiefeng), allowing officials to be appointed immediately. As a result, the number of officials inside and outside the court became excessively large. Many had no official offices to occupy, and at that time people referred to this situation as "three places with no seats," meaning there was nowhere for chancellors, censors, and Yuanwai Guan to sit—indicating their overwhelming numbers. At that time, Zheng Yin was serving as a Shilang (Minister of Personnel), and he accepted large bribes. He retained too many candidates for appointments without available positions to fill, and in advance used up the quotas for three years' worth of vacancies, thereby causing great disorder in official procedures.
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及先天以後，宋璟為尚書，李乂、盧從愿為侍郎，方革前弊，量闕留人。雖資高考深而非才實者，並罷選。當時選者十不收一，由是吏曹之職復理矣。自有唐以來，居吏部者，唯馬載、裴行儉、崔玄暐、韋嗣立最為稱職。 |
| | After the Tianbao era, Song Jing became the Shangshu (Minister of Personnel) and Li Yi and Lu Congyuan served as Shilangs. It was then that they reformed previous abuses by carefully matching available vacancies with candidates for appointment. Even those who had high qualifications and deep experience but lacked genuine ability were all dismissed from consideration. At that time, only one out of ten candidates was accepted; thus the administrative functions of the Ministry of Personnel returned to order. Since the beginning of the Tang dynasty, among those who served in the Ministry of Personnel, Ma Zai, Pei Xingjian, Cui Xuanwei, and Wei Sili were considered most competent.
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開元十三年，玄宗又以吏部選試不公，乃置十銓試人。明年，復故。 |
| | In the thirteenth year of Kaiyuan, Emperor Xuanzong, upon learning that the Ministry of Personnel's selection and testing were unfair, established ten quan (examination panels) to assess candidates. The following year, the previous system was restored.
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至天寶八載六月，敕「旨授官宜立攢符，下諸郡府」。十一載，楊國忠為吏部尚書，以肺腑為相，懼招物議，取悅人心，乃以選人非超絕當留及藍縷當放之外，其餘常選，從年深者率留，故憃愚廢滯者咸荷焉。其明年，三銓注官，皆自專之，於尚書都堂與左相相偶唱注，二旬而畢，不復經門下省審，侍郎不得參其議。 |
| | In the sixth month of the eighth year of Tianbao, an imperial decree stated: "For appointments made by imperial edict, a special token (zhanfu) should be established and issued to all prefectures and commanderies." In the eleventh year, Yang Guozhong became Minister of Personnel. As a close confidant serving as chancellor, he feared public criticism and sought to please people by retaining candidates for appointment unless they were clearly exceptional or obviously unfit. For regular appointments, he generally favored those with longer service records, so even dull-witted and mediocre individuals benefited from this practice. The following year, when the three panels assigned official appointments, they did so entirely on their own. In the Grand Hall of the Ministry of Personnel, the Minister of Personnel and the Left Chancellor jointly announced the appointments over a period of twenty days. These decisions were no longer reviewed by the Menxia Sheng (Office of Review), and the Shilangs had no opportunity to participate in the discussions.
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| | 歷代制下: |
其內常參官八品以上及外官五品以上正員并停使郎官御史丁憂廢省者，舊制中書、門下便除授，貞元四年正月制「春秋舉薦」。至五年六月，敕：「在外者，委諸道觀察使及州府長史；其在京城者，委中書、門下、尚書省、御史臺。常參清官并諸使三品以上官，左右庶子，少詹事，少卿，監，司業，少尹，諭德，國子博士，長安、萬年縣令，著作郎，郎中，中允，中舍人，祕書太常丞，贊善，洗馬等，每年一度薦聞。」至八年正月，敕：「比來所舉，人數頗多，自今以後，中書、門下兩省及御史臺五品以上，尚書省四品以上，諸司三品以上，應合舉人，各令每人薦不得過兩人。餘官，不得過一人。」至九年十一月，敕：「每年冬薦官，吏部準式檢勘，成者宜令尚書左右丞、本司侍郎引於都堂，訪以理術兼商量時務狀，考其理識通者及考第事，疏定為三等，并舉主名錄奏。試日，仍令御史一人監試。」 |
| | For regular officials of the eighth rank and above in the imperial court, as well as those holding official posts of the fifth rank and above outside the capital who were on leave due to mourning or had been dismissed from office, it was previously customary for the Zhongshu Sheng (Chancellery) and Menxia Sheng to directly appoint replacements. In January of the fourth year of Zhenyuan, an imperial decree established a new regulation: "Recommendations shall be made in accordance with the spring and autumn cycles." By June of the fifth year, an imperial decree stipulated: "For those outside the capital, the appointment shall be entrusted to the Guancha Shi (inspectors) of each circuit and to the chief officials of states and prefectures; those within the capital shall be entrusted to the Zhongshu, Menxia, Shangshu departments, and the Yushi Tai (Office of Censors)." Regular officials of high rank and prestige, as well as senior officials (third rank or above) under various commissions, Left and Right Shuzi, Shaonian Shi, Shaoying, Jian, Siye, Shaoyin, Yude, Guizi Boshi, Chang'an and Wannian county magistrates, Zuo Zuolan, Langzhong, Zhongyun, Zhongshe Ren, Mi-shu Taichang Cheng, Zanshan, Xima, etc., shall be recommended once a year." In January of the eighth year, an imperial decree stated: "Recently, the number of individuals recommended has been quite large. From now on, for officials in the Zhongshu and Menxia departments as well as the Yushi Tai holding fifth rank or higher, those in the Shangshu department with fourth rank or above, and those in various offices with third rank or above who are required to recommend candidates, each official shall not recommend more than two individuals. Other officials may not recommend more than one person." In the eleventh month of the ninth year, an imperial decree ordered: "Each winter when officials are recommended for appointment, the Ministry of Personnel shall examine them according to established regulations. Those who pass should be brought before the Left and Right C 丞 (Cancellers) of the Shangshu Department and the Shilangs in charge of their respective offices at the Grand Hall. They will be questioned on administrative principles and current affairs, assessed for their understanding and ability, and evaluated based on their performance records. Their qualifications shall then be categorized into three ranks, along with a list of those who recommended them, and submitted to the throne." On the day of examination, one censor was also ordered to supervise the test.
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周制，三載考績，三考黜陟。其訓曰：「三歲而小考其功也。小考者，正職而行事也。九歲而大考有功也。大考者，黜無職而賞有功也。」 |
| | The Zhou system stipulated that officials would be evaluated every three years, and after three evaluations (nine years total), they would either be promoted or demoted accordingly. It stated: "A minor evaluation of their achievements is conducted every three years." The minor evaluation refers to the correction of official duties and the proper conduct of affairs. A major evaluation is conducted after nine years, at which point those with achievements are recognized. The major evaluation refers to demoting those who are unfit for their positions and rewarding those who have achieved merit."
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漢元帝建昭中，西羌反，日蝕，又久青無光。召京房問，對曰：「古帝王以功舉賢，則萬化成，瑞應著。末代以毀稱取人，故功業廢而致災異。宜令百官各試其功，災異可息。」詔房作其事，房奏考功課吏法。帝令公卿與房會議，皆以房言煩碎，令上下相伺，不可許。上意嚮之。時部刺史奏事京師，帝召見，令房曉以課事，諸刺史復以為不可行。唯御史大夫鄭弘、光祿大夫周堪言善。是時，中書令石顯專權，顯友人五鹿充宗為尚書令，與房同經，議論相非。時充宗嫉房，出為魏郡太守，唯許房至郡自行考課法。 |
| | During the Jianzhao period of Emperor Yuan of Han, the western Qiang rebelled, a solar eclipse occurred, and there was also prolonged greenish darkness without light. The emperor summoned Jing Fang to inquire, and he replied: "In ancient times, when emperors promoted the virtuous based on their achievements, all transformations were accomplished, and auspicious omens became evident. "In later dynasties, when people were selected based on false praise rather than merit, achievements declined and calamities resulted. "It is advisable to have all officials demonstrate their accomplishments; then these disasters and anomalies can be eliminated." łó The emperor issued an edict ordering Fang to implement this matter, and Fang submitted a proposal for the method of evaluating officials' performance. The emperor ordered the high ministers and Fang to convene a meeting, but they all considered Fang's proposals too detailed and burdensome, arguing that such measures would lead officials at different levels to constantly monitor each other, which was not acceptable. The emperor, however, favored the idea. At that time, regional inspectors who had come to report affairs in the capital were summoned by the emperor, and Fang was ordered to explain the evaluation system to them. The various inspectors again considered it unfeasible. Only the Minister of Justice Zheng Hong and the Guanglu Daifu Zhou Kan spoke in favor, saying that the proposal was good. At this time, the Zhongshu Ling Shi Xian held absolute power. His friend Wulu Chongzong was the Shangshu Ling, and he shared with Fang a common teacher in Confucian classics; they criticized each other's views. At that time, Chongzong envied Fang and transferred him to serve as Taishou of Weiqu, but allowed Fang to personally implement the evaluation system in his commandery.
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魏明帝時，以士人毀稱是非，混雜難辨，遂令散騎常侍劉劭作都官考課之法七十二條，考覈百官。其略欲使州郡考士，必由四科，皆有效，然後察舉，或辟公府為親人長吏，轉以功次補郡守者，或就秩而加賜爵焉。至於公卿及內職大臣，率考之。事下三府。 |
| | During the reign of Emperor Ming of Wei, because it was difficult to distinguish between true and false claims about officials' merits and faults among scholars, the court ordered Sanchi Changshi Liu Shao to draft a system of seventy-two articles for evaluating all government officials. The general idea was that when the commanderies and states evaluated scholars, they must be assessed according to four categories. Only those who demonstrated clear achievements could then be recommended for official appointments or selected by public offices as close associates or senior officials. They would either gradually advance in rank based on their merits to become magistrates of commanderies or receive a title directly while remaining in their current posts. As for the high ministers, senior officials, and those holding key court positions, they were also subject to evaluation as a rule. The matter was referred to the Three Offices for discussion.
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是時大議考課之制，散騎黃門侍郎杜君務伯以為，用不盡其人，雖文具無益。上疏曰：「書稱『明試以功，三考黜陟』，帝王之盛制。然歷六代而考績之法不著，關七聖而課試之要未立。臣誠以為其法可粗依，其詳難備舉故也。語曰：『世有亂人而無亂法。』若使法可專任，則唐虞可不須稷契之佐，殷周無貴伊呂之輔矣。今奏考功者，陳周、漢之云為，掇京房之本旨，可謂明考課之要；至於崇揖讓之風，興濟濟之理，臣以為未盡善也。古之三公，坐而論道，內職大臣，納言補闕，無善不紀，無過不舉。且天下至大，萬機至眾，誠非一明所能遍照。故君為元首，臣為股肱，明一體相資而成也。」後考課竟不行。 |
| | At that time, there was a major debate on the system of evaluations, and Sanchi Huangmen Shilang Du Junwubei believed that if officials' talents were not fully utilized, even the most elaborate regulations would be of no benefit. He submitted a memorial stating: "The Book says 'Officials should be tested by their achievements, and after three evaluations they will either be promoted or dismissed'—this is the exemplary system of emperors. "Yet, through six dynasties the method for evaluating performance remained unclear, and despite seven sage rulers, no essential system of testing had been established. "I sincerely believe that a general framework can be followed, but the detailed provisions are difficult to fully enumerate." The saying goes: "There may be disorderly people in the world, but no inherently disorderly laws." "If laws alone could be relied upon to govern effectively, then the Tang and Yu dynasties would not have needed ministers like Ji and Qi for assistance, nor would Yin and Zhou have required the wise support of Yi and Lü." "The current proposal for evaluating officials draws upon the practices of Zhou and Han dynasties, as well as Jing Fang's original intent; it can be said to clarify the essentials of performance evaluation. "However, in terms of promoting a culture of courtesy and fostering harmonious governance, I believe it is not yet fully refined." In ancient times, the Three Dukes sat and deliberated on state affairs; senior court ministers advised the emperor and corrected his omissions. No virtue went unrecorded, and no fault was left unnoticed. Moreover, the empire is vast, and state affairs are numerous; indeed, they cannot all be managed by a single wise individual's oversight alone. Therefore, the ruler is the head and officials are the limbs; it is only through mutual support that a unified whole can be achieved." Later, the system of evaluations was ultimately not implemented.
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晉武帝泰始初，務崇理本，詔河南尹杜君元凱為黜陟之課，其略曰：「臣聞上古之政，因循自然。虛己委誠，而信順之道應；神感心通，而天下之理得。其後淳樸漸散，彰美顯惡，設官分職，以頌爵祿，弘宣六典，以詳考察。然猶倚明哲之輔，建忠貞之司，使名不得越功而獨美，功不得後名而獨隱，皆疇咨博訪，敷納以言。及至末代，不能紀遠而求於密微，疑諸心而信耳目，疑耳目而信簡書。簡書愈繁，官方愈偽，法令滋彰，巧飾彌多。昔漢之刺史，亦歲終奏事，不制算課，而清濁粗舉。魏氏考課，即京房之遺意，其文可謂至密。然由於累細，故歷代不能通也。豈若申唐堯之舊典，去密就簡，則簡而易從也。今科舉優劣，莫若委任達官，各考所統。在官一年以後，每歲言優者一人為上第，劣者一人為下第，因計偕以名聞。如此六載，主者總集采案，其六歲處優舉者超用之，六歲處劣舉者奏免之，其優多劣少者敘用之，劣多優少者左遷之。今考課之品，所對不均，誠有難易。若以難取優，以易而否，主者固當準量輕重，微加降殺，不足復曲以法盡也。」 |
| | At the beginning of the Taishi era under Emperor Wu of Jin, the court emphasized restoring fundamental governance. The emperor issued an edict appointing Du Junyuankai as governor of Henan to oversee promotions and demotions according to a system; its general outline stated: "I have heard that in ancient times, government was conducted by following nature's course. "By humbling oneself and entrusting sincerity, the path of trust and harmony will naturally respond; the divine will is moved by heartfelt sincerity, and thus the principles governing the world are attained. In later times, as simplicity and sincerity gradually faded, distinctions between virtue and vice became more pronounced. Officials were appointed with defined duties, and titles and salaries were awarded to commend merit or punish failure. The Six Classics were promoted and the detailed examination of officials was carried out accordingly. Yet, even then, wise ministers and loyal officials were still relied upon. Offices of integrity were established to ensure that reputation could not surpass merit in being praised alone, nor could merit remain hidden behind a lack of reputation. All matters required thorough consultation and broad inquiry, with recommendations made through discussion and deliberation. By later dynasties, however, rulers could not look to the distant past for guidance and instead focused on minute details. They doubted people's intentions but trusted their eyes and ears; yet they still doubted what their senses told them and placed faith in written records alone. The more elaborate the documents became, the more corrupt officialdom grew; as laws multiplied, so did deceit and artful disguises. In ancient Han times, regional inspectors also submitted reports at year's end without detailed numerical evaluations, yet they could roughly distinguish between upright and corrupt officials. The Wei dynasty's system of evaluation followed the original intent of Jing Fang; its wording can be said to have reached an extraordinary level of detail. Yet, because it relied on excessive minute details, no later dynasty was able to implement it successfully. How much better would it be to revive the ancient regulations of Tang and Yao, abandoning excessive detail in favor of simplicity—thus making governance straightforward and easy to follow. Nowadays, when assessing the merits or faults of officials, there is nothing better than entrusting senior officials with the responsibility and having them evaluate those under their jurisdiction. After an official has served for one year, each year they should recommend one person of outstanding merit as the top rank and one with poor performance as the lowest rank. These recommendations would then be submitted along with annual reports to the imperial court. After six years, the central authorities would compile and review these records. Those who had been recommended as outstanding for all six years would be promoted beyond their normal rank; those consistently rated poorly in all six years would have their removal reported to the emperor. Officials with more commendations than criticisms would continue to serve, while those criticized more often than praised should be demoted. Nowadays, in the evaluation of officials' performance, there are indeed disparities and varying degrees of difficulty. If an official is judged excellent despite difficult circumstances, or criticized for shortcomings in easier conditions, the central authority must certainly weigh these factors carefully and make slight adjustments. It would be unnecessary to apply rigid legalistic standards exhaustively."
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後魏孝文帝太和中，詔曰：「三載考績，自古通經；三考黜陟，以彰能否。今若待三考然後黜陟，可黜者不足為遲，可進者大成賒緩。是以朕今三載一考，考即黜陟，欲令愚滯無妨於賢者，才能不壅於下位。各令當曹，考其優劣為三等。六品以下，尚書重問；五品以上，朕將親與公卿論其善惡。上上者遷之，下下者黜之，中中者守其本任。」時否臧必舉，賞罰大行，其薄賞者猶賜車馬器服，以申獎勸。後帝臨朝堂，顧謂錄尚書兼廷尉卿、廣陵王羽曰：「凡考績，上下二等，可為三品；中等，但為一品。所以然者，上下是黜陟之科，故旌絲髮之美惡；中等守本，事可大通。」帝又謂尚書等曰：「卿等在任，年垂二周，未嘗進一賢，退一不肖，此二事罪之大者。」謂羽曰：「汝居樞端之任，在職以來，功勤之績不聞於朝，阿黨之音頻干朕聽。今黜汝錄尚書、廷尉，但居特進、太保。」自尚書令、僕射以下，凡黜退二十餘人，皆略舉遺闕。諸如此黜官者，令一年之後，任官如初。 |
| | During the Tahe period of Emperor Xiaowen of the Northern Wei, an edict was issued: "Evaluating officials every three years is a universally accepted principle since ancient times; after three evaluations, they are either promoted or demoted to distinguish the capable from the incapable. Now, if we wait for three evaluations before making promotions or demotions, those who deserve to be dismissed will not be delayed in doing so; however, those worthy of advancement may experience excessive delay. Therefore, I now decree that evaluations will be conducted every three years and decisions on promotion or demotion made immediately after each evaluation. This is to ensure the unqualified do not hinder the virtuous, and capable individuals are not blocked from rising in rank. Each department shall assess its officials' performance and classify them into three categories: outstanding, average, or poor. For officials of the sixth rank and below, the Shangshu Office will conduct a second review; for those above the fifth rank, I shall personally discuss their merits and faults with the high ministers. Those in the top category will be promoted; those in the lowest category will be demoted; and those in the middle category shall remain in their current posts." At that time, all commendations and criticisms were clearly recorded, and rewards and punishments were widely implemented. Even for minor rewards, officials received carriages, horses, or ceremonial garments to express appreciation and encouragement. Later, when the emperor presided over a court session, he turned to Lu Shangshu and concurrently Tingwei Qing Guangling Wang Yu and said: "In general, performance evaluations divide officials into two categories—upper and lower—which can be further classified into three ranks; the middle category is simply considered one rank. The reason for this classification is that the upper and lower categories determine promotion or demotion, so even the slightest virtue or vice must be recognized; those in the middle category remain in their posts, as they are capable of managing affairs effectively." The emperor also said to the Shangshu officials: "You have held office for nearly two years, yet you have never recommended a single virtuous person or dismissed an unscrupulous one. These are among your greatest faults." He said to Yu: "You hold a key position. Since assuming office, your achievements and diligence have not reached the court, yet frequent reports of favoritism and factionalism have come before me. Therefore, I hereby demote you from Lu Shangshu and Tingwei posts; you shall hold only the titles of Tejin and Taibao." From the Shangshu Ling and Puye downwards, more than twenty officials were demoted or dismissed for minor shortcomings. Those who had been dismissed in this manner were allowed to resume their former positions after one year.
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宣武帝時，太尉、侍中、高陽王雍上表曰：「竊惟三載考績，百王通典。今任事上中者，三年升一階；散官上第者，四載登一級。閒冗官本非虛置，或以賢能而進，或因累勤而舉。如其無能，不應忝茲高選。以勤以能，進之朝伍，或征官外戍，遠使絕域，催督逋懸，察檢卅鎮，皆是散官，以充劇使。乃於考陟，排同閒伍。檢散官之人，才非皆劣，稱事之輩，未必悉賢。而考閒以多，課煩以少，上乖天澤之均，下生不等之苦。復尋正始之格，汎後任事上中者，三年升一階；汎前任事上中者，六年進一級。三年一考，自古通經。今以汎前六年升一階，檢無愆犯，倍年成級。以此推之，明以汎代考也。」 |
| | During the reign of Emperor Xuanwu, Taiwei, Shizhong, and Gaoyang Wang Yong submitted a memorial stating: "I humbly believe that evaluating officials every three years is an established practice among all past rulers. "Now, for those who perform their duties well and are rated as upper-middle or above, they should be promoted one rank every three years; for officials without administrative posts who receive the highest rating, a promotion by one level is granted every four years. Idle or redundant official positions were never established without purpose; some are filled due to virtue and ability, while others are appointed because of accumulated diligence. If an individual is truly incapable, he should not be allowed to occupy such a prestigious post unworthily. Those who are diligent and capable should be promoted to court ranks. Some may serve as officials in distant garrisons, travel far abroad on missions, collect overdue taxes, or inspect thirty military outposts—these roles are all filled by such officials, fulfilling important duties. Yet during evaluations and promotions, they are grouped together with idle officials. Among those in non-administrative posts, not all lack talent; among those who perform duties well, not everyone is necessarily virtuous. Yet idle officials are evaluated more frequently while those with important duties receive fewer assessments, which is unjust above and causes hardship below. Therefore, following the regulations of Zhengshi era once more, for those in future posts who are rated as upper-middle performers or above, a one-rank promotion should be granted every three years; for those already serving and rated similarly, a one-level advancement is to be given after six years. Evaluating officials every three years has been an established principle since ancient times. Now, for those already in office who receive a one-level promotion after six years of service without any misconduct, their advancement is effectively doubled. From this reasoning, it becomes clear that promotions should replace the need for evaluations."
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徐州刺史蕭寶夤又論曰：「方今守令，厥任非輕。及考課，悉以六載為程，既而限滿代還，復經六年而敘。是則歲周十二，始得一階。於東西兩省、文武閒職、公府散佐、無事冗官，或數旬方應一直，或弦朔止於暫朝，及其考日，更得四年為限。是則一紀之內，便登三級。彼以實勞劇任，而遷貴之路至難；此以散位虛名，而升陟之方甚易。何內外之相懸，令厚薄之如是？」 |
| | Xuzhou Zhishi Xiao Baoyin further argued: "At present, magistrates and county officials hold positions of great responsibility. Yet when it comes to evaluations, they are all conducted on a six-year cycle. Once their term is up and they return from office, another six years must pass before they can be reassessed. This means it takes twelve full years to achieve a single rank promotion. For officials in the eastern and western palaces, civil or military non-administrative posts, assistant roles in public offices, or idle positions with little responsibility, some may appear for only a few days at a time, while others attend court briefly during new moons or full moons. When it comes to their evaluations, they are given an even longer limit of four years. Thus, within a single twelve-year cycle, such officials could attain three levels of promotion. Those who perform arduous duties with real effort find the path to advancement extremely difficult; yet those in idle positions or holding empty titles find promotion surprisingly easy. How can there be such a disparity between officials serving inside the court and those outside? Why is there such an imbalance in treatment?"
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孝明帝延昌二年，又將大考百僚。散騎常侍、領三公郎中崔鴻以考令於體例不通，乃建議曰：「竊惟王者為官求才，使人以器，黜陟幽明，揚清激濁。故績效能官、才必稱位者，朝升夕進，年歲數遷。豈拘一階半級，閡以同僚等位者哉！二漢以降，太和以前，苟必官須此人，人稱其職，或超騰轉陟，數歲而至公卿，或長兼試守，稱允而遷進者，披卷則人人而是，舉目則朝貴皆然。故能時收多士之稱，國號豐賢之美。竊見景明以來考格，三年成一考，轉一階。貴賤內外，萬有餘人，自非犯罪，不問賢愚，莫不上中，才與不肖，比肩同轉。雖有善政如龔、黃，儒學如王、鄭，史才如班、馬，文章如張、蔡，得一分一寸，必為常流所攀，選曹亦抑為一概，不曾甄別。琴瑟不調，改而更張，雖明旨已行，猶宜消息。」時不從。 |
| | In the second year of Yanchang under Emperor Xiaoming, another major evaluation of all officials was to be conducted. Sanchi Changshi, Ling San Gong Langzhong Cui Hong believed the evaluation regulations were inconsistent with established procedures. He proposed: "I humbly think that a ruler appoints officials to seek talent and assigns people according to their abilities; he promotes or demotes them based on virtue and vice, thus upholding clarity and removing corruption. Therefore, those whose achievements match their positions and who possess abilities worthy of their ranks should be promoted quickly—within a day or even within the year. How could they possibly be restricted by minor rank differences and blocked merely because of their peers' positions! In the two Han dynasties and before the Tahe era, if a position required a certain individual and that person was suited to their role, they could be promoted rapidly—advancing several times within years to become high ministers or senior officials. Others might hold acting posts for extended periods until proven capable of advancement. When one reads historical records, such cases are common; when looking at the court's elite, this pattern is evident in all prominent figures. Thus, they were able to earn praise for cultivating many talented individuals and be known as a state rich in virtue and wisdom. I have observed that since the Jingming era, the evaluation system has been set so that after three years of service, an official receives one assessment and is promoted by a single rank. With thousands of officials, both high and low-ranking, inside and outside the court, unless they commit crimes, regardless of their virtue or ignorance, all receive at least a medium rating. Thus, capable individuals and those lacking talent stand side by side and are promoted together. Even if someone possesses governance skills like Gong and Huang, scholarly attainments like Wang and Zheng, historical talent like Ban and Ma, or literary excellence like Zhang and Cai, they would still gain only a small fraction of recognition. Such achievements are inevitably overshadowed by ordinary officials, while the personnel office treats them all as equal, never distinguishing between them. Just as a lute or zither must be retuned when out of harmony, even if an imperial decree has already been issued, it is still appropriate to make adjustments." The court did not follow his advice.
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大唐考課之法，有德義清慎、公平恪勤各一善，自近侍至於鎮防，並據職事目為之最，凡二十七焉。一最以上，有四善，為上上；一最以上，有三善，或無最而有四善，為上中；一最以上，有二善，或無最而有三善，為上下；一最以上，有一善，或無最而有二善，為中上；一最以上，或無最而有一善，為中中；職事麤理，善最弗聞，為中下；愛憎任情，處斷乖理，為下上；背公向私，職務廢闕，為下中；居官諂詐及貪濁有狀，為下下。若於善最之外別有可嘉尚，及罪雖成殿而情狀可矜，或雖不成殿而情狀可責者，省校之日，皆聽考官臨事量定。諸州縣官人，撫育有方，戶口增益者，各準見戶為十分論，每加一分，刺史、縣令各進考一等。其州戶口不滿五千，縣戶不滿五百者，各準五千五百戶法為分。苦撫養乖方，戶口減損者，各準增戶法，亦每減一分降一等。其勸課農田能使豐殖者，亦準見地為十分論，每加二分，各進考一等。其有不加勸課以致減損者，每損一分，降考一等。若數處有功，並應進考者，並聽累加。 |
| | The evaluation system of the Tang dynasty included one virtue in each of the following categories: moral integrity, clarity and prudence, fairness, and diligence. From close attendants to frontier commanders, all officials were assessed according to their duties, resulting in a total of twenty-seven criteria for determining excellence. Those with one or more top ratings and four good virtues were classified as the highest rank; those with one or more top ratings plus three good virtues, or those without a top rating but possessing four good virtues, were classified as upper-middle; those with one or more top ratings along with two good virtues, or those lacking a top rating but having three good virtues, were ranked as middle-upper; those with one or more top ratings combined with one good virtue, or those without a top rating yet possessing two good virtues, were considered middle-upper; those with at least one top rating, or none but having one good virtue, were ranked as medium-middle; those whose duties are only roughly handled and who show no notable virtues or ratings were classified as middle-lower; those who let personal likes and dislikes dictate their actions, making decisions contrary to reason, were ranked lower-upper; those who neglected public duties for private interests and failed in their responsibilities were classified as lower-middle; Those who, while holding office, engaged in flattery, deception, or showed clear signs of greed and corruption were ranked lowest. If, beyond the standard criteria of virtues and ratings, there were other commendable aspects, or if an official had committed a fault but showed circumstances deserving sympathy, or even if no serious offense was found yet their behavior still warranted criticism, then on the day of evaluation, these matters would be left to the discretion of the examining officials to determine. For magistrates and county officials who governed effectively, nurturing their people well and increasing the population, they would be assessed based on the current number of households divided into ten parts. For every additional one part achieved, both the regional governor (cishi) and the county magistrate (xianling) would receive a one-grade improvement in their evaluation. For states with fewer than 5,000 households or counties with fewer than 500 households, the standard for evaluation would be based on a quota of 5,000 and 500 respectively. If an official failed in governance and the population declined, they would be evaluated according to the same criteria used for increases. For every one part reduction, their evaluation grade would drop by one level. Those who encouraged agricultural production and succeeded in increasing crop yields would also be assessed based on the existing land area divided into ten parts. For each two additional parts achieved, their evaluation grade would improve by one level. If officials failed to encourage agricultural production, resulting in a decline in yields, For every one part reduction, their assessment grade would be lowered by one level. If an official achieved merits in multiple areas and was eligible for multiple evaluation upgrades, these could all be cumulatively added.
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貞觀六年，監察御史馬周上疏曰：「今流內九品以上，有九等考第，自比年不過中上，未有得上下以上考者。臣謂所設九等，正考當今之官，必不施之於異代也。縱使朝廷實無好人，猶應於見在之內，比校其尤善者，以為上第，豈容皇朝士人遂無堪上下之考。朝廷獨知貶一惡人可以懲惡，不知褒一善人足以勸善。臣謂宜每年選天下政術尤最者一二人為上上，其次為上中，其次為上下。則中人以上，可以自勸矣。」 |
| | In the sixth year of Zhenyuan, Jiancha Yushi Ma Zhou submitted a memorial stating: "Currently, officials ranked within the nine grades above the lowest class are evaluated in nine categories. However, for several years now, no one has received an upper-middle or higher rating; none have achieved a middle-upper or better evaluation. I believe the nine established categories are meant to assess current officials, and they should not be applied retroactively to those from previous dynasties. Even if the court truly lacked virtuous individuals, it should still identify and rank those who are relatively more capable among current officials as top performers. How could it possibly be that no official in this dynasty is worthy of an upper-middle or better evaluation? The court knows only too well how to punish a single wicked person as a deterrent, yet it fails to recognize that praising one virtuous individual is sufficient to encourage goodness. I suggest that each year, the court should select one or two officials from across the country who have demonstrated particularly outstanding governance as top-top performers; those slightly less so would be upper-middle, and those next in line would be middle-upper. Only then can officials of average or higher ability motivate themselves."
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神龍中，御史中丞盧懷慎上疏曰：「臣聞孔子曰：『為邦百年，可以勝殘去殺。』又曰：『苟有用我者，期月而已，三年有成。』故書云『三載考績』，校其功也。子產，賢者也。其為政尚累年而化成，況其常材乎？竊見比來州縣官佐，下車布政，有多者一二年，少者三五月，遽即遷除，不論課考。或歷時未改，便傾耳而聽，企踵而睹，爭求冒進，不顧廉恥，亦何暇宣風布化、求瘼恤人哉！戶口流散，百姓凋弊，職為此也。何則？人知吏之不久，則不從其吏；吏知遷之不遙，又不盡其能。偷安苟且，脂韋而已。又古之為吏者長子孫，倉氏、庾氏即其後也。臣請都督、刺史、上佐、兩畿縣令等，在任未經四考，不許遷除。察其課效尤異，或錫以車裘，或就加祿秩，或降使臨問，并璽書慰勉。若公卿有闕，則擢以勸能。政績無聞，抵犯貪暴者，放歸田里，以明賞罰。致理救弊，莫過於此。」 |
| | During the Shenlong period, Yushi Zhongcheng Lu Huaishen submitted a memorial saying: "I have heard Confucius say: 'After a hundred years of governing a state, one can overcome cruelty and abolish executions.' He also said: 'If there is someone who employs me, within a month I will make progress, and in three years, results will be evident.'" Therefore, the Book of Documents says "after three years, performance is assessed," to evaluate their achievements. Zi Chan was a virtuous man. Even he required several years of governance to achieve transformation; how much more so for ordinary officials? I have observed that in recent years, local magistrates and assistants, upon assuming office and implementing policies, are often transferred or promoted after as little as one or two years, or even just three to five months, without regard for their evaluation records. Some, before their term has even ended, eagerly await promotion and rush to seek advancement without regard for integrity or shame. How can they possibly have the time or concern to spread virtue, implement policies, address grievances, or care for the people! This is precisely why households and populations are dispersing, and the common people are becoming impoverished. Why? Because when people know that officials will not remain in their posts for long, they do not obey those officials; and since officials themselves know they will be transferred soon, they also fail to exert their full abilities. They merely seek temporary peace and act carelessly, being as pliant as tallow and leather. In ancient times, officials served for generations; the Cang family and Yu family are among their descendants. I respectfully request that regional governors, cishi (regional magistrates), senior assistants, and county magistrates in the two capitals not be allowed to transfer or receive promotion unless they have served for at least four evaluations. Those whose evaluation results are particularly outstanding should be rewarded—either with carriages and furs, or with increased salaries and ranks, or by sending envoys to inquire in person, along with imperial edicts offering encouragement. If there are vacancies among the high ministers, they should be promoted as an incentive for capability. Those whose governance has no notable achievements and who commit offenses involving greed or brutality should be dismissed and sent back to their hometowns, so as to clarify rewards and punishments. This is the most effective way to achieve good governance and correct abuses," he said.
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左監門錄事參軍劉秩論曰：「昔周公使伯禽理魯，三年而後報政。周公曰：『何遲？』伯禽曰：『變其禮，易其俗，難，所以遲。』太公理於齊，三月而後報政。周公曰：『何疾？』曰：『因其俗，簡其禮，易，所以速。』故孔子論之曰：『齊一變至於魯，魯一變至於道。』由是而言，勞不甚者理不極，功不積者澤不深。故堯舜三年而考，三考而黜陟，所以能盡其智術也。近古人情敦厖，未淳乎堯舜；禮正樂和，未愈於虞夏；官賢吏能，未稱於殷周。或一年而考，或四考黜陟，或比年而巡狩，或歲時便遷，或旬月升擢令長。今日既上，明日部內有犯名義者即坐之，不其速歟？」 |
| | Liu Zhi, a Lu Jianmen Lushi Canjun, commented: "In the past, Duke of Zhou sent Bo Qin to govern Lu, and it was not until three years later that he reported on his governance. The Duke of Zhou asked: "Why is it so late?" Bo Qin replied: "It was difficult to change their customs and rituals, which is why it took time." Tai Gong governed Qi and reported on his governance after only three months. The Duke of Zhou asked: "Why so quickly?" Tai Gong replied: "I followed their customs and simplified their rituals; it was easy, hence the speed." Therefore, Confucius commented: "If Qi changed once, it would become like Lu; if Lu changed once, it would reach the Way." From this we can see that those who do not work very hard cannot achieve great governance, and those whose accomplishments are not accumulated will not bring profound benefits. Therefore, Yao and Shun conducted evaluations after three years, and after three assessments decided on promotion or demotion—this is why they were able to fully utilize the wisdom and abilities of their officials. In recent times, human nature has become less sincere and harmonious than in the days of Yao and Shun; rituals are not as upright and music not as harmonious as during Yu and Xia; officials are neither as virtuous nor as capable as those of the Yin and Zhou dynasties. Some officials are evaluated within a year, or after four assessments before being promoted or demoted; some are inspected during annual tours every other year, while others are transferred or appointed as magistrates within months. If someone is promoted today and the next day an official in their department violates regulations, they are immediately held accountable—does this not happen too quickly?"
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開元二十五年十二月，命諸道采訪使考課官人善績，三年一奏，永為常式。至二十七年二月，赦文：「三載考績，黜陟幽明，允協大猷，以勸天下。比來諸道所通善狀，但優仕進之輩，與為選調之資，責實循名，或乖古義。自今以後，諸道使更不須通善狀。每至三年，朕自擇使臣，觀察風俗，有清白政理著聞者，當別擢用之。」 |
| | In the twelfth month of the twenty-fifth year of Kaiyuan, an imperial decree was issued ordering the various regional inspectors to assess the achievements and virtues of officials. These evaluations were to be submitted once every three years and established as a permanent regulation. By the second month of the twenty-seventh year, an amnesty edict stated: "After three years of performance evaluation, officials will be promoted or demoted based on their virtue and vice. This is in full accordance with great principles and serves to encourage all under heaven. In recent years, the commendations submitted by various regions have merely benefited those seeking advancement and served as qualifications for official appointments. Holding people strictly to their titles without regard for actual merit has deviated from ancient principles. From now on, the regional inspectors need not submit commendations of officials' virtues any longer. Every three years, I myself will select imperial envoys to observe local customs. Any official known for clear governance and upright conduct shall be specially promoted."
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